Author: chemistrypubsiu

A water bath is an equipment that is used to control a steady temperature for a prolonged time when incubating samples. It has more advantages than open flame when heating flammable substances. It has the ability to create some chemical reactions at high temperatures. It is a container filled with warm water which has different design combinations, sizes, and proportions. The capacity ranges for this instrument are 10 to 30 liters for a standard model and 40 to 100 liters for a large water bath. It may regulate definite temperature for some water baths. It may contain a shaker that…

Laboratory Refrigerators and Freezers are made by a thermally insulated compartment and a mechanical, electronic, or chemical heat pump that transfers heat from the interior to the exterior to keep the internal temperature below room temperature. Laboratory Refrigerators and Freezers must be 100 percent hygienic and 100 percent dependable. Laboratory Refrigerators and Freezers can preserve various samples and specimens which can cool in laboratories for further use. It helps to reduce the risk of bacterial contamination and volatile material explosions. Laboratory Refrigerators and Freezers Introduction Laboratory Refrigerators and Freezers needs proper air circulation and a fan to maintain a consistent…

A pipette is one type of lab instrument which uses to measure out or dispense small amounts of liquid in milliliters (mL) or microliters (μL) volumes. There have three types of this instrument namely glass, plastic, and electronic pipette. Borosilicate glass is used to make a glass type of this instrument. Plastic types of this instrument are constructed with polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and microprocessors run the electronic type of this instrument. It is generally made with plastic and glass which are commonly used to measure volumes under 1 milliliter (mL). It can measure 0.1 microliters (μL) volume with an electronic…

pH meter or pH tester is an electrical and analytical device used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of liquids and semi-solids. pH is a common unit that measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution using a logarithmic scale. The solution becomes neutral if the value of pH is 7 where lower values are more acidic, and higher ones are more alkaline. It is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration [H+] which gives in moles per liter (c). pH = -log10 [H+] The product of hydrogen ion concentration[H+] and hydroxyl ion concentration [OH-] is constant in…

Biocatalyst A biocatalyst means a biological-based catalyst that increases the rate of biological reaction or function in any biological system and induces the formation of products. Biocatalysts are generally natural enzymes and proteins. Biocatalysts are very sensitive to temperature and pH. They act only on their specific reactants for further reactions. The activities of biocatalysts can be controlled and modulated. Example: Pepsin and Trypsin. These biocatalysts are responsible to start and make the breakdown reaction of protein into amino acids very quickly. Biocatalyst pepsin Biocatalysts are used for improving the performance of detergents, processing food, allowing diagnostic laboratories, etc. Annulene…

Polymer Transition Polymer Transition is an intermediate state at the time of heating and cooling of polymeric materials. Solid thermosetting polymeric substance changes to rubbery and rubbery thermoplastic polymer turns into liquid after applying specific temperatures. Polymer Transition Regions Polymer transition regions occur within very short temperature intervals over which the properties of a polymer change a lot. Glass transition and the crystal melting transition is the example of polymer transition. Glass transition temperature (Tg) The glass transition temperature is an important characteristic of polymeric substances which is represented by Tg. The three units of glass transition temperature are Degrees…

Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) is one type of modern absorption spectroscopy. The radiations having a frequency in the microwave region (0.04 – 25 cm) in this device can be absorbed to induce transitions between magnetic energy levels of electrons with unpaired spins of various paramagnetic type samples. The main factor of ESR relates to the fact that atoms, ions, molecules, or molecular fragments which have an odd number of electrons show the characteristic of magnetic properties. We know that an electron has a spin that has the ability to show the magnetic moment. It was invented in 1944 by E.K.…

ETP or Effluent Treatment Plant is a very important part of the industry that is used to purify wastewater for reuse or safe disposal of our environment and protect us from various harmful effects caused by the effluent. A large amount of effluent is generated regularly in various industries like textile, pharmaceuticals and chemicals, tanneries, etc. It should not release contaminated water without treatment as it contains various toxic and non-toxic chemicals. If we release contaminated water into the environment, it will have a bad effect on our ecosystem. The effluents from industrial sectors contain various harmful materials, depending on…

XRD or X-Ray Diffraction Spectroscopy is one kind of rapid analytical technique primarily used to determine the crystallographic structure of a material. It helps to reveal the information on unit cell dimensions and the actual structure deviates from the ideal one, owing to internal stresses and defects. This technique mainly uses by irradiating a material with the monochromatic X-rays and then measuring the intensities and scattering angles of the X-rays that leave the working material. This is a non-destructive technique that is generally used on crystalline structures owing to their regular and repeating crystal lattices and gives the opportunity for…

Ultracentrifuge is a modern and complex type of centrifuge that can operate at an extremely high speed and separates smaller molecules easily. It has good speed ranges from 60,000 rpm to 150,000 rpm. This type of centrifuge is very suitable to perform more advanced operations. The samples can be operated by this apparatus either in batches or as a continuous flow system. It has a heat-controlling system which makes it more suitable to operate. Principle of Ultracentrifuge The principle of this equipment follows the sedimentation principle, which shows that the denser particles of the objects settle down faster when compared…